POLLINATOR LAB

BeeMachine identifies bees from around the world as well as other flowering insects such as flies, wasps, beetles, and butterflies/moths that can sometimes be confused with bees. BeeMachine uses a convolutional neural network, modified from EfficientNetv2, and is trained on over 1.2 million images gathered mainly from Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Image data were also provided by Michael Branstetter, Jonathan Koch, Dianna Cox Foster, and Terry Griswold from the USDA-ARS Pollinating Insect Biology, Management, Systematics, Research Unit, as well as the Wisconsin Bumble Bee Brigade, the Hanamaru Maruhana Project, and Jerry Cole.

Overall test accuracy is 93.8% (> 99% top-3) but this varies by species depending on the number of training images and their level of morphological variability.

Species were nicely separated based on learned features.

Using BeeMachine

• Image quality helps with accuracy. Motion, poor focus, or if the bee is represented by too few pixels can reduce accuracy
• As with human-based IDs, it is always good to compare predictions from multiple images of the same individual
• The model outputs the 3 most likely species and associated probabilities. Based on the test data, the correct ID is given by the top prediction nearly 94% of the time and is in the top 3 predictions over 99% of the time

The 355 taxa recognized by BeeMachine:

Taxon	Precision	Recall	# Images
Acamptopoeum	0.9091	0.9091	61
Agapostemon	0.9713	0.9465	13,929
Agapostemon splendens	0.9058	0.9387	5,353
Agapostemon virescens	0.9684	0.9603	15,257
Alloscirtetica	0.75	0.8824	94
Amegilla	0.971	0.965	5,397
Amphylaeus	0.775	0.8857	195
Ancylandrena	1	0.8333	67
Andrena	0.9177	0.8074	25,857
Andrena barbilabris	0.8556	0.9307	2,407
Andrena bicolor	0.8434	0.9254	3,429
Andrena cineraria	0.9383	0.956	7,076
Andrena clarkella	0.906	0.9401	5,014
Andrena denticulata	0.9074	0.9608	3,118
Andrena dorsata	0.8402	0.9356	1,812
Andrena duningi	0.8367	0.9574	1,695
Andrena erigeniae	0.8641	0.9578	923
Andrena flavipes	0.9432	0.9616	7,681
Andrena florea	0.95	0.9721	1,195
Andrena fulva	0.9805	0.9748	11,450
Andrena haemorrhoa	0.9683	0.951	14,646
Andrena hattorfiana	0.9841	0.9756	3,880
Andrena hirticincta	0.956	0.9886	1,956
Andrena milwaukeensis	0.9056	0.9505	1,795
Andrena nigroaenea	0.7408	0.8657	1,945
Andrena nitida	0.9213	0.9577	3,941
Andrena nubecula	0.9297	0.9794	1,351
Andrena prunorum	0.9066	0.974	1,495
Andrena vaga	0.9636	0.9682	10,488
Andrena ventralis	0.8462	0.967	1,517
Andrena wilkella	0.828	0.9352	2,746
Anthidiellum	0.9451	0.962	2,485
Anthidium	0.8424	0.7898	978
Anthidium florentinum	0.949	0.9664	3,641
Anthidium maculosum	0.9316	0.9397	645
Anthidium manicatum	0.9895	0.9797	23,511
Anthidium oblongatum	0.953	0.971	4,991
Anthidium punctatum	0.9741	0.9741	1,073
Anthidium septemspinosum	0.8992	0.9667	667
Anthophora	0.8486	0.8304	2,851
Anthophora abrupta	0.9013	0.9481	1,178
Anthophora bimaculata	0.9568	0.9568	900
Anthophora bomboides	0.8973	0.9291	784
Anthophora californica	0.9244	0.9575	2,485
Anthophora furcata	0.9551	0.9739	1,701
Anthophora pacifica	0.9187	0.98	834
Anthophora plumipes	0.9647	0.9625	7,565
Anthophora quadrimaculata	0.8359	0.8992	661
Anthophora retusa	0.8882	0.9096	923
Anthophora terminalis	0.9435	0.9576	2,229
Anthophora urbana	0.9346	0.9653	3,046
Anthophora villosula	0.9379	0.9645	784
Anthophorula	0.9	1	50
Apis	0.8519	0.8214	311
Apis cerana	0.9488	0.956	9,593
Apis dorsata	0.9586	0.9715	3,707
Apis florea	0.9627	0.9791	2,929
Apis laboriosa	0.9444	0.9444	100
Apis mellifera	0.9707	0.9654	20,393
Ashmeadiella	0.8889	0.8571	156
Augochlora	0.9524	0.9125	9,021
Augochlorella	0.8452	0.929	4,541
Augochloropsis	0.8985	0.9284	2,173
Bombus	0.7984	0.6644	828
Bombus affinis	0.9677	0.9738	7,003
Bombus alpinus	0.6667	0.8182	122
Bombus appositus	0.9015	0.9075	2,523
Bombus ardens	0.7451	0.8976	706
Bombus argillaceus	0.918	0.96	973
Bombus asiaticus	1	1	83
Bombus atripes	0.7778	0.875	44
Bombus auricomus	0.9651	0.9627	13,245
Bombus balteatus	0.6429	0.8182	122
Bombus barbutellus	0.8222	0.7255	283
Bombus beaticola	0.9048	0.8636	122
Bombus bellicosus	0.9315	0.9714	389
Bombus bicoloratus	0.9184	0.9574	261
Bombus bifarius	0.7865	0.8876	1,384
Bombus bimaculatus	0.9318	0.9347	16,169
Bombus bohemicus	0.7337	0.8333	1,801
Bombus borealis	0.9707	0.9614	9,944
Bombus brasiliensis	0.8235	0.9333	83
Bombus californicus	0.8646	0.9104	5,458
Bombus caliginosus	0.8189	0.9005	1,228
Bombus campestris	0.9123	0.9244	2,501
Bombus centralis	0.8387	0.9068	4,113
Bombus cingulatus	0.7857	0.7333	83
Bombus citrinus	0.9618	0.9582	9,043
Bombus coccineus	0.7778	0.7778	50
Bombus confusus	0.8974	0.8537	228
Bombus consobrinus	0.8492	0.9157	923
Bombus crotchii	0.9383	0.9603	3,079
Bombus cryptarum	0.8202	0.86	1,945
Bombus cullumanus	0.7857	0.8462	145
Bombus dahlbomii	0.9496	0.9706	756
Bombus deuteronymus	0.8689	0.9298	317
Bombus distinguendus	0.8947	0.9225	717
Bombus diversus	0.9324	0.9452	811
Bombus ephippiatus	0.9444	0.9577	1,579
Bombus eximius	0.9211	0.9589	406
Bombus fervidus	0.9567	0.9491	12,562
Bombus flavidus	0.8724	0.8956	3,140
Bombus flavifrons	0.8995	0.8575	10,844
Bombus formosellus	1	0.9259	150
Bombus fragrans	0.9286	0.9286	78
Bombus fraternus	0.9344	0.9806	2,585
Bombus frigidus	0.7658	0.7203	656
Bombus funebris	0.9112	0.9625	889
Bombus griseocollis	0.9572	0.9608	16,169
Bombus haematurus	0.8519	0.8846	434
Bombus hedini	0.9091	1	56
Bombus honshuensis	0.8966	0.8387	172
Bombus hortorum	0.8998	0.9141	4,530
Bombus hortulanus	0.8519	0.8734	439
Bombus humilis	0.869	0.9235	2,835
Bombus huntii	0.9548	0.9407	11,617
Bombus hyperboreus	0.9167	0.9167	67
Bombus hypnorum	0.977	0.9621	15,708
Bombus hypocrita	0.8772	0.8621	322
Bombus ignitus	0.8267	0.7949	434
Bombus impatiens	0.9491	0.9494	15,813
Bombus insularis	0.8868	0.945	3,641
Bombus jonellus	0.8187	0.8397	867
Bombus kirbiellus	0.9206	0.8406	384
Bombus koreanus	1	0.7692	72
Bombus laesus	0.8889	0.6667	67
Bombus lapidarius	0.9713	0.9446	15,146
Bombus lapponicus	0.7632	0.5577	289
Bombus lucorum	0.7796	0.7971	4,958
Bombus magnus	0.6087	0.6364	122
Bombus mckayi	0.9369	0.9498	1,217
Bombus medius	0.8661	0.8899	606
Bombus melanopygus	0.9673	0.9458	17,742
Bombus melanurus	1	0.7857	78
Bombus mesomelas	1	0.8788	183
Bombus mexicanus	0.75	0.7826	128
Bombus mixtus	0.9244	0.9214	10,177
Bombus modestus	0.8462	0.6471	94
Bombus monticola	0.8165	0.8241	600
Bombus morio	0.7	0.4375	89
Bombus morrisoni	0.9096	0.967	1,851
Bombus muscorum	0.8166	0.9079	845
Bombus nevadensis	0.9584	0.9548	7,370
Bombus niveatus	0.9091	0.8333	67
Bombus norvegicus	0.65	0.5065	428
Bombus occidentalis	0.9127	0.9581	3,579
Bombus opifex	0.8941	0.9383	450
Bombus opulentus	0.7857	0.7857	78
Bombus pascuorum	0.9693	0.9555	15,997
Bombus patagiatus	0.8806	0.9219	356
Bombus pauloensis	0.8466	0.899	1,706
Bombus pensylvanicus	0.9597	0.9513	17,130
Bombus perplexus	0.9607	0.9471	13,762
Bombus picipes	0.8	0.8	56
Bombus pratorum	0.9669	0.9581	11,016
Bombus pseudobaicalenis	0.8333	0.8333	67
Bombus pullatus	0.75	0.5357	156
Bombus pyrenaeus	0.8	0.8	56
Bombus pyrosoma	0.8889	1	133
Bombus pyrrhopygus	0.9091	0.9091	61
Bombus quadricolor	0.7568	0.8	195
Bombus robustus	0.8761	0.9167	600
Bombus rubicundus	0.9663	0.9773	489
Bombus ruderarius	0.6212	0.7961	572
Bombus ruderatus	0.8293	0.7816	967
Bombus rufocinctus	0.9515	0.8927	19,159
Bombus rupestris	0.9088	0.9368	3,252
Bombus schrencki	0.8395	0.8718	867
Bombus semenoviellus	0.918	0.9333	333
Bombus sichelii	0.8571	0.8571	545
Bombus sitkensis	0.7766	0.8915	2,818
Bombus sonani	1	1	94
Bombus soroeensis	0.7391	0.75	756
Bombus sporadicus	0.7619	0.8	222
Bombus steindachneri	1	0.9	56
Bombus subterraneus	0.9	0.9	778
Bombus sylvarum	0.9283	0.9445	3,507
Bombus sylvestris	0.7541	0.6216	411
Bombus sylvicola	0.6335	0.8643	778
Bombus ternarius	0.9624	0.959	17,781
Bombus terrestris	0.9365	0.9171	16,358
Bombus terricola	0.9688	0.9729	10,272
Bombus transversalis	0.9048	0.9048	117
Bombus ussurensis	0.7143	0.9091	61
Bombus vagans sandersoni	0.871	0.9159	9,182
Bombus vancouverensis	0.9489	0.9425	11,706
Bombus vandykei	0.7326	0.8848	1,979
Bombus vestalis	0.9058	0.9211	1,973
Bombus veteranus	0.8846	0.8647	739
Bombus volucelloides	0.9091	0.9091	61
Bombus vosnesenskii	0.9722	0.9418	16,536
Bombus weisi	0.625	0.9091	61
Bombus wilmattae	0.7692	0.9091	122
Bombus wurflenii	0.7027	0.8	361
Bombus zonatus	1	0.9091	61
Brachymelecta	0.9743	0.9815	1,501
Braunsapis	0.9771	0.9588	1,484
Cadeguala	0.9362	0.9565	256
Calliopsis	0.8931	0.9213	1,412
Callomelitta	0.7917	0.9048	117
Camptopoeum	1	0.8824	94
Caupolicana	0.9706	0.8919	206
Centris	0.9347	0.9453	2,440
Ceratina	0.9505	0.945	5,758
Ceylalictus	0.9444	0.9273	306
Chalepogenus	0.8889	0.8889	100
Chelostoma	0.9093	0.9418	4,969
Coelioxys	0.966	0.9796	4,358
Coleoptera	0.9916	0.9898	21,282
Colletes	0.8945	0.8964	5,152
Colletes cunicularius	0.9499	0.9543	6,075
Colletes hederae	0.9476	0.9617	2,612
Colletes inaequalis	0.9022	0.9379	4,919
Corynura	0.8333	0.5556	50
Ctenonomia	0.9832	0.9791	1,328
Dasypoda	0.8158	0.9394	183
Dasypoda hirtipes	0.993	0.9808	17,692
Diadasia	0.949	0.9562	2,918
Dianthidium	0.9686	0.9625	889
Dieunomia	0.9302	0.9249	962
Dioxys	0.9286	0.9286	78
Diphaglossa	0.9545	0.9767	239
Diptera	0.9755	0.9739	14,068
Dufourea	0.8373	0.9205	839
Epeoloides	0.7778	0.9486	1,189
Epeolus	0.9331	0.8646	3,407
Epicharis	0.9091	0.9677	172
Ericrocis	0.9545	1	117
Euaspis	0.9474	0.9	111
Eucera	0.9029	0.9259	2,401
Eufriesea	0.881	0.925	222
Euglossa	0.9905	0.9836	2,368
Euhesma	0.85	1	94
Eulaema	0.9587	0.9778	2,507
Euryglossa	0.8485	0.875	178
Evylaeus	0.9275	0.9412	378
Exaerete	0.9643	1	300
Exomalopsis	0.8636	0.8636	122
Exoneura	0.9167	0.9167	67
Exoneuridia	1	0.8333	67
Florilegus	0.9286	0.8387	172
Gaesischia	0.9	0.8182	61
Habropoda	0.9085	0.9246	3,463
Halictus	0.8217	0.8257	11,450
Halictus ligatus	0.9442	0.9194	21,382
Halictus rubicundus	0.8679	0.9071	6,764
Halictus scabiosae	0.9604	0.9637	11,339
Halictus tripartitus	0.7959	0.9275	4,602
Heriades	0.9667	0.9672	9,499
Hesperapis	0.9286	0.8864	245
Holcopasites	0.9868	0.974	428
Hoplitis	0.7876	0.8558	2,312
Hylaeus	0.9337	0.9253	8,115
Hylaeus leptocephalus	0.844	0.9225	717
Hylaeus modestus	0.8886	0.9344	2,373
Hyleoides	0.878	0.9351	428
Icteranthidium	0.9828	0.9344	339
Lasioglossum	0.9521	0.895	23,711
Leioproctus	0.8984	0.8582	745
Lepidoptera	0.9686	0.9808	5,775
Lipotriches	0.8606	0.8606	917
Lithurgopsis	0.9062	0.9667	167
Lithurgus	0.8899	0.9417	572
Macropis	0.9765	0.9698	4,052
Macrotera	0.7895	0.8333	100
Manuelia	0.7407	0.8333	133
Megachile	0.9648	0.9062	22,344
Megachile ericetorum	0.9081	0.9719	1,979
Megachile latimanus	0.8603	0.9155	1,906
Megachile perihirta	0.8091	0.875	1,912
Megachile pugnata	0.8313	0.9528	1,178
Megachile sculpturalis	0.9709	0.9862	5,636
Megachile xylocopoides	0.9535	0.9843	6,025
Megandrena	0.8125	0.9286	78
Melecta	0.9443	0.9713	1,551
Meliponini	0.9634	0.9679	14,529
Melissodes	0.9386	0.9348	4,180
Melissodes bimaculatus	0.9781	0.9686	14,868
Melissodes desponsus	0.9545	0.9675	2,051
Melissoptila	0.9091	0.7143	78
Melitoma	0.9474	0.96	417
Melitta	0.9293	0.9501	3,229
Melitturga	0.9333	1	78
Mellitidia	0.9375	1	167
Meroglossa	0.8571	0.8	83
Mesocheira	0.6667	0.8889	50
Micralictoides	0.8462	0.9565	256
Nomada	0.971	0.9363	16,502
Nomada goodeniana	0.8361	0.9431	2,346
Nomada lathburiana	0.8789	0.9333	2,334
Nomia	0.9216	0.9303	2,951
Nomioides	0.8475	0.9091	306
Notanthidium	0.8571	1	67
Osmia	0.8897	0.8829	8,832
Osmia bicolor	0.916	0.9478	1,278
Osmia bicornis	0.9782	0.9694	23,650
Osmia caerulescens	0.8889	0.9425	1,934
Osmia cornuta	0.9813	0.9832	14,268
Osmia lignaria	0.8979	0.9344	1,779
Othinosmia	1	1	72
Oxaea	0.8824	0.8824	94
Pachyprosopis	0.9167	0.7857	78
Palaeorhiza	0.8889	0.8421	106
Panurginus	0.7857	0.825	222
Panurgus	0.935	0.9737	1,478
Paragapostemon	1	1	78
Paranthidium	0.9652	0.9737	634
Paratetrapedia	0.6923	0.9	56
Pasites	0.913	1	117
Patellapis	0.6	0.6923	72
Peponapis	0.9774	0.9622	2,501
Perdita	0.9145	0.9304	1,918
Protandrena	0.7632	0.8529	189
Protosmia	0.7778	0.875	311
Protoxaea	0.9286	0.8667	167
Pseudapis	0.9286	0.8784	411
Pseudaugochlora	1	0.8333	133
Pseudoanthidium	0.734	0.734	522
Pseudopanurgus	0.8641	0.8725	567
Ptiloglossa	0.8889	0.7273	61
Ptilothrix	0.9181	0.9629	2,396
Rhodanthidium	0.9458	0.974	1,495
Rophites	0.7143	0.9375	89
Ruizantheda	0.7321	0.8913	256
Scrapter	0.9048	0.95	111
Sphecodes	0.9383	0.9681	4,886
Stelis	0.9179	0.9088	3,352
Svastra	0.905	0.9284	2,796
Syntrichalonia	0.8182	1	50
Syrphidae	0.9836	0.9751	23,917
Systropha	0.8889	1	89
Tetralonia	0.9143	0.8889	200
Tetraloniella	0.8872	0.8939	734
Thalestria	0.9412	1	89
Thygater	0.8539	0.9157	461
Thyreus	0.9858	0.9915	1,951
Trachusa	0.903	0.8563	967
Trichocolletes	0.875	0.7778	50
Triepeolus	0.959	0.9558	3,268
Wasp	0.9575	0.9575	17,658
Xenoglossa	0.7805	0.8421	211
Xylocopa	0.9092	0.7979	16,391
Xylocopa aestuans	0.8045	0.8675	923
Xylocopa augusti	0.8525	0.8927	1,295
Xylocopa caffra	0.8724	0.9593	1,228
Xylocopa flavorufa	0.9203	0.9695	728
Xylocopa latipes	0.8312	0.9412	1,512
Xylocopa micans	0.904	0.9613	7,898
Xylocopa pubescens	0.8632	0.9482	1,073
Xylocopa sonorina	0.9028	0.9283	11,239
Xylocopa tabaniformis	0.9447	0.9484	11,622
Xylocopa tenuiscapa	0.8355	0.9549	739
Xylocopa violacea	0.8961	0.9452	8,926
Xylocopa virginica	0.9751	0.9682	19,554
Zacosmia maculata	0.9091	1	56

Collaborators & Acknowledgements

• Claudio Gratton, University of Wisconsin – Madison
• William Hsu, Kansas State University
• Brian McCornack, Kansas State University